LECTURE  VIII DEALING WITH PARAGRAPHS

1. COHERENCE          

2. OLD AND NEW INFORMATION    

3. THE ORDERING OF SENTENCES IN A PARAGRAPH          

1. COHERENCE

COHERENCE means «reasonable connection» — «an or­derly relationship between parts». It's the quality that makes the difference between a set of UNconnected phrases or clauses, on the one hand, and a simple, compound or complex sentence, on the other hand (see Unit 2 of the Appendix [Section V of Part II] on Compound and Complex Sentence Patterns). It also makes the difference between a set of UNconnected sentences and a PARAGRAPH (which is a set of CONNECTED sentences). Finally, the same quality — COHERENCE — makes the differ­ence between a set of UNconnected paragraphs and a TEXT.

The writer makes his sentences, paragraphs and text coher­ent by using various cues and signals that establish the «orderly relationship» between the various parts of his sentences, be­tween the various sentences in his paragraphs, and between the various paragraphs in his text. It is the job of the reader to follow these cues and signals and understand the relationships.

 

CUES AND SIGNALS USED TO ESTABLISH COHERENCE

1. Grammatical Signals such as conjunctions (Section V of Part II Unit 4; the position of a given word in the sentence (Section V, Unit 2); and grammatically meaningful word end­ings (Word Power [Part I] Section X, Unit IE).

2. Punctuation Signals (Section V of Part II, Unit 3).

3. Visual Cues such as paragraph indentation.

4. Verbal Cues such as repeated words (to emphasize con­nections).

5. Pronouns (to refer backwards and forwards instead of simply repeating words).

6. Various Other Verbal Cues (Section V of part II, Unit 6).

A. Which of these two «sentences» makes some kind of sense (and why)? (How can a sentence make «sense» without being logical?)

a. Sleep green colorless furiously ideas.

b. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

B. The sentences that make up a coherent paragraph must be grammatically and logically connected. What makes the «paragraph» below incoherent?

People love music. There are carbon granules in the tele­phone receiver. Although the Japanese people are remarkable. Her dog was killed. In the southern part of Jordan there is a place of unique historical interest.

C. Now consider the paragraph below:

Cecil, the aardvark, was a strange pet. Because of his exotic eating habits, he was able to rid the house of insects. What he devoured most often were the little dark ants. He was often seen routing these out with his long ugly snout. Granted, his snout made him an excellent exterminator. However, it also made him an unusual household pet.

List the features that make this a coherent paragraph.

 

D. Below is another example of a COHERENT parapraph. The various devices used by the writer to establish coherence have been clearly marked, and they include the following:

1. Pronouns. The «we» in sentence 5 hooks back not only to «higher animals» but to the readers themselves, referred to in the first sentence with «our».

2. Summary nouns and pronouns. The «this» in sentence 6 pulls together the entire paragraph by referring to «experiment» and «play» in sentence 5 and to the «process of learning» in sentence 1. Sometimes a summary noun will do this job. For example, sentence 6 might have read: «Perhaps the nature of trial run is what gives. .»

3. Repeated words. «Scientist», «learning», and «errors» reappear.

4. Repeated stems. Bronowski used «an experiment» (the noun) followed by «experiments» (the verb).

5. Rewording of the same idea. A «harmless trial run» is later redefined as a «setting in which errors are not fatal».

6. Punctuation. Colons usually tell us that an explanation, an example or a list follows. Semicolons connect two main clauses that generally are closely related.

7. Parallel construction. The grammatically parallel con­struction of «the scientist experiments and the cub plays» (sen­tence 5) emphasizes the parallel connection Bronowski wishes to make.

Cues and Signals Used to Establish Coherence

D: A passage with many word and phrase cues

Source: Jacob Bronowski. The Common Sense of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.1 In he following paragraph the cues and signals that es­tablish coherence have been underlined. Study each one and decide what type of coherence device it is. (Refer to the list of devices preceding the Bronowski text above).

Rescue dogs are often specially trained to work in areas where a bomb or earthquake has buried people in debris. Their job is to locate where the persons are buried so that rescuers can dig them out before they suffocate or die of other injuries. Since the dog must guide rescuers to the spot, he must be willing to sit and bark until help comes. As a result some dogs, including collies, shepherds, airedales, and, in fact, most working breeds, can be trained for rescue; others can't. Spaniels, setters, and some hounds, for example, refuse to bark once they have found their person. Although they would bark at home if someome came to the door, these hunting breeds have been selectively bred not to bark while working because it would scare the game.

3.2 Reorder the sentences below so that they form a coher­ent paragraph.*

__ a. But because many new summer workers don't know how to move large trees, the best ways to handle the equip­ment, handle the trucks, or the large plants, their job is much harder.

__ b. Yet Timmerman does little to help summer employ­ees in these areas.

__ c. Or at least it shouldn't be.

__ d. Timmerman Landscape Co. Inc. is a local nursery that has recently moved into doing landscaping.

__ e. There is a waiting list for these jobs because the pay is good and the work is outdoors but not as heavy as construc­tion work.

__ f. They have a year-round staff of around ten people, but in the summer they hire a lot of summer help to meet peak summer workloads.

__ g. Most of the summer help are college students.

* (Key: a-6; b-7; c-5; d-1; e-4; f-2; g-3)

2. What features of each sentence help you determine its position in the paragraph?

 

2. OLD AND NEW INFORMATION

(Another Coherence Device)

In a paragraph, the writer usually establishes coherence be­tween sentences by referring back, in the first part of each sentence, to what the reader already knows (Old Information) and by adding the (New ) information that leads his argument forward in the second part of each sentence.

Notice how this pattern of Old Information leading to New Information works in the following:

Shopping for a Turkey

 

 

Old ... New . . .

 

The old information

was stated in the

title.

 

 

In buying a turkey, you get more meat your money from a whole bird than from a boned, rolled turkey roast.

 

 

 

 

The reference to "the whole bird" is old information from the preceding sentence.

 

 

Old ... New . . .

And the bigger that whole bird is, the

more meat you will have in

proportion to bone.

 

 

 

Old ... New . . .

A turkey weighing less than 12 pounds

is one-half waste.

 

 

 

The reference to a turkey's weight

is old information, but the fact of

one-half waste is new.

 

 

 

 

 

«As a result» is old information,

reffering to the points made previously in the paragraph.

 

Old ... New . . .

As a result, it is more economical to buy half of a lage, 20 pounder than to buy a small, 10-pound turkey.

 

 

 

 

At times this pattern of moving from old information to new information is broken. For example:

Old ...               New . . .                                                                                                                              And the bigger that whole bird is, the more meat

 

New . . .                                                                                                                                                                              you will have in proportion to bone. One-half

Old  . . .

waste is what you'll get with a turkey weighing

less that 12 pounds.

Sometimes the sentence with new information at the be­ginning is confusing and needs rereading. However, by violat­ing expectations, you can also create surprise and emphasis, as the sentence above did by surprising us with the phrase, «One-half waste . . .» To sum up, then, you can use various kinds of repetition, including the old information / new information pattern, to make clear connections between sentences.

Exercise:

A. In the following paragraph, underline the part of each sentence that presents New Information.

Behavior of People in Groups

Often people who hold the higher positions in a given group overestimate their performance. Although this may not always be true, it does indicate that the actual position in the group has much to do with the degree of confidence a person may have. Thus a group member is more likely to feel highly confi­dent about his own performance if he holds a high position in the group or feels he has an important part to play.

B. Which sentence «violates» expectations by putting the New Information first?

 

 3. THE ORDERING OF SENTENCES IN A PARAGRAPH

                                               Some of the Common Ordering Systems Are:

1. TIME ORDER                                                                                                                                                         Time Order — (information organized in a chronology, time sequence).

 

Words that are clues or signal words often used when writ­ing in chronological or time order:

first, next, last, in the end, days, dates, soon, later, finally, eventually, times, later on, in the meantime, afterwards, not long after, at the end, at last, right away, in the beginning.

2. COMPARISON/CONTRAST

Comparison/contrast — (information organizes to show simi­larities, differences, advantages, disadvantages. Speaker's per­spective may be neutral or may take a position).

Words that are clues or signal words of a comparison or contrast:

but, different, however, like, contrary to, comparative forms (e.g., faster, slower), rather, on the contrary, as, in the same way, instead, yet, similarly, on the other hand.

 

3. COLLECTION OF DESCRIPTIONS

Collection of descriptions — (information organized by a simple listing of facts or ideas relating to the same topic)

Words that are clues or signal words of a collection of de­scriptions:

some, others, many, a few, other, also, first, second, third, finally, in addition, lastly, all.

4. CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause and Effect — (information organized by showing the cause or causes of an event or situation, of the effects of some event or situation, or both).

Words that are clues or signal words of a cause/effect pat­tern:

result, cause, effect, lead to, due to, consequently, because of, create, become, come about.

Exercise:

Below are four paragraphs about Sir Isaac Newton.

A. Read each paragraph, and then choose one sentence from the extra sentences below and write the letter for that sentence next to the paragraph in which it would fit best. One of the sentences will not be used.

B. Label each paragraph according to the system by which the sentences are ordered (use the four labels given above «Time Order»; «Comparison/Contrast»; «Collection of descriptions»; or «Cause and Effect»).

Paragraph 1

Sir Isaac Newton worked on many important scientific prob­lems. First, there was his development of the laws of motion. He also made important discoveries about optics and the na­ture of color. His other work included ideas about astronomy, chemistry, and logic. And finally, he produced the Principia, a book which explained his law of universal gravitation.

Paragraph 2

Isaac Newton was born in England in 1642. He went to Trinity College, Cambridge University, in 1661 at the age of 18. In 1665, the plague swept through England, and Newton left school and returned to his family home in Woolsthorpe. It was there that he began most of his best work. He published his famous book, the Principia, in 1682. And in 1699 he was made the director of the English Mint. Sir Isaac Newton died in 1727 and he is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Paragraph 3

Although the two men were both geniuses, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein have very little else in common. True, they both did their most important and famous work before the age of 26. But there are great differences between them. «Proper behavior» was most important to Newton, while Einstein liked to be different. Newton spent his later years working for the government, while Einstein spent his entire life doing science.

Paragraph 4

Newton did most of his best work during his stay in Woolsthorpe from 1665 to 1668. Many writers have tried to find out what caused him to produce all of those great ideas in such a short time. Was it the peace and quiet of the small town that caused his creative powers to increase? The causes may never be known, but the effects of Newton's genius are still felt today.

Extra sentences:

a. Some people think that a falling apple caused Newton to think of the law of universal gravitation.

b. Present-day physicists have discovered limits to the me­chanical universe which Newton described.

c. In addition, he invented differential and integral calcu­lus.

d. They say Isaac Newton never smiled, but Albert Einstein had a great sense of humor.

e. In fact, by age 26, he had alredy completed most of his best work.