Semester
4, Lesson 11(56)
HUMAN
RESOURCE PLANNING: forEcasting demand for employees
I Read text 30 using your dictionary to help with new words. Think of the suitable title
of the text. 30
TEXT 30
Human resource planning involves forecasting the organization’s future
demand for employees, forecasting the future supply of employees within the
organization, and designing programs to correct the discrepancy between the
two. It serves the same purpose for human resource management as strategic
planning does for other management activities. The purpose of human resource
planning is to ensure that, in the future, the firm has enough employees with
the appropriate skills so that it can accomplish its long-term goals.
The starting
point of human resource planning is the organization’s strategic plans and
goals. Let’s use a hypothetical example. Hubert Spotswood presently owns a
successful jewellery store. Hubert has read that, because of the cost of
building new homes, economic forecasters are predicting that individuals will
choose to remodel their existing homes rather than buy new ones. He has
therefore decided that in six years he wishes to be the largest jewellery and
tool marketer in the area. His strategic plan is to open a large discount
store, Jewels & Tools, which will carry watches and other jewellery as well
as tools for household repair and maintenance. In addition, he wishes to have
three upscale boutiques for each of the two product groups, to be called Pretty
Things and Puttering Things.
He knows that
implementing these plans will necessitate more employees with different skills
than those he presently employs. Hubert does not have the time to handle all
the details of the strategic plan, so he has hired Diana Taylor as a human
resource manager. Diana, because she did well in her management courses, knows
that she must start by drawing up a human resource plan that will be
implemented over the next six years.
II. Comprehension check. Working in pairs,
answer the questions.
a) What is human resource planning?
b) Why is it important to predict the organization’s future demand for and
supply of employees?
c) Why has Hubert Spotswood decided to reform his business?
d) What kind of business reorganization
is Hubert Spotswood planning?
e) Why has he employed Diana Taylor?
f) Imagine that you are a HR
manager. What information would you need before drawing up a human resource
plan?
III. Read the text again. Find
and write down a word or words in the text that mean the same as the following
definitions. They are in the same order as they appear in the text.
|
a.
making a statement about
what is likely to happen, usually relating to the weather, business, or the
economy |
b.
the amount of a product or
service that people want, or the fact that they want it |
c.
quantity of something that
is available to use |
|
d.
deciding how something will
be made, including the way it will work, and often making drawings of it |
e.
a difference between things
that should be the same |
f.
the aim that someone wants
to achieve |
|
g. to make certain that
something happens or is done |
h. to succeed in doing something |
i. to legally have
something, especially because you have bought it |
|
j.
someone whose job is to make
a statement about what is likely to happen |
k.
to decide to do something |
l.
to change the structure or
appearance of something |
|
m. a person or company that
buys and sells a particular product |
n. a reduction in the price of something |
o. to have goods for sale |
|
p. work that is done to fix
something that is broken or damaged |
q. work that is done to keep something repaired and in good condition |
r. the quality of services or goods that are designed for people who have
a lot of money |
|
s.
doing something in a slow
and enjoyable way |
t.
making something start to
work and be used |
u.
to make something necessary |
|
v. to pay someone to work
for you (two words) |
w. to take action to deal with a difficult situation |
x. preparing and writing something such as a document or plan |
IV. Use your dictionary to look up
any new words.
1.
Write the following words in
the correct column.
|
specific quantitative qualitative productivity index regression analysis ratio unit output population area competitor strength community enrol expert (2) planner different from assume occur continue produce (2) happen start up weaken accurate move to environment agenda decision-making step (2) member fashion (2) turn (2) viewing purpose clarification evaluation ballot (2) silently priority order (2) ranking adopt decision participant series carefully design (2) independently anonymously location original (2) respondent position (2) repeat |
|
Nouns (37) |
Verbs (18) |
Adjectives (8) |
Adverbs (4) |
|
|
|
specific |
|
2.
Which verbs in A can go with which nouns in B? E.g.
to develop a forecast / forecasts
A
|
to develop to determine to rank to write down to present to divide to arrange to rely on to account for to reach to consult to complete to compile to correlate to introduce to find out to cause to review to trigger to ask for to engage in to redistribute to restrict to gather to need to hold to identify to provide to use (employ) to record to predict to go through to forecast |
B
|
demand method(s) technique(s) record(s) salesperson(s) amount data number(s) variables sales judgement(s) forecast(s) product(s) expert(s) idea(s) information group exchange meeting discussion communication solution(s) questionnaire(s) survey opinion(s) problem result(s) amendment(s) consensus |
3.
Working in pairs, form as many
noun phrases as possible combining a word in A with a word in B.
E.g. accurate method, adopted method, qualitative method, quantitative
method, statistical method, etc.
A
B
|
accurate adopted business decision-making designed different economic expert group highest historical hypothetical interpersonal large local meeting open original potential priority productivity quantitative regression secret specific statistical strategic useful written yearly |
job method technique index analysis example sales goal strength school data forecast activities products operation judgement group agenda communication process discussion ballot order ranking decision survey opinion meeting solution questionnaire position |
V. Pre-reading task
Work in small groups.
You know already that
forecasting demand for employees is a component of human resource planning. It
uses methods that can be divided into two groups. Do you have any idea what
these groups are? Can you exemplify each
of these two groups of methods?
VI Reading
1. First read text 31 quickly. Can you find in it any proofs
of your suggestions?
TEXT 31 Forecasting
Demand for Employees
Forecasting
demand for employees involves predicting how many employees the firm will need
in specific jobs in the future. There are two types of forecasting methods:
quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative Forecasting Methods.
Quantitative methods, as you can probably guess, use statistical techniques.
Two of the most often used techniques are the productivity index and regression
analysis. The productivity index is the ratio of employees to unit of output.
Returning to our hypothetical example, Diana goes through Hubert's records for
the last ten years and calculates that each salesperson accounts for $85,000 in
yearly sales. If she can find out the amount of sales in the strategic goal,
Diana can determine the number of salespersons that will be needed. Regression
analysis uses data about a number of variables that are correlated to predict
sales and numbers of employees. In this case, Diana uses population of the
area, number of competitors, economic strength of the community, and the number
of students enrolled in the local building and trade school to determine the
number of salespersons needed.
Qualitative Forecasting Methods. Qualitative
forecasting methods rely primarily on the judgements of experts. These methods
are used when planners cannot gather historical data to develop statistical
forecasts or when they think that future business activities will be quite
different from those of the past.
Quantitative
forecasts usually assume that what has occurred in the past will continue in
the future. For example, if one salesperson produced $85,000 in sales for the
last five years, then this should happen in the next five. However, if more
competitors start up, or the economy weakens significantly, or the firm
introduces many different products, these forecasts will not be accurate. In
such a case, moving to qualitative methods, planners consult experts in the
business operation who have a good idea about the future environment of the
business, and who can provide useful judgements. One technique for gathering
information from these experts is through the Delphi method. Another is nominal
grouping, which divides a large group into smaller ones, and then arranges the
exchange of information among the groups.
Nominal Group Technique. This technique involves the
use of a highly structured meeting agenda and restricts discussion or
interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. The following
steps occur in a nominal group:
1.
Members meet as a group, but
before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes down his or
her ideas for possible problem solutions.
2.
In round-robin fashion, each
member takes a turn presenting a single idea to the group. This continues until
everyone’s ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion of the ideas
occurs until all ideas have been recorded for general viewing.
3.
The group then engages in an
open discussion of the ideas for the purpose of clarification and evaluation.
4.
A secret written ballot is then taken, with
each member individually and silently ranking the ideas in priority order. The
idea that has the highest aggregate ranking becomes the adopted decision.
Delphi
Group Technique. This method employs a written survey to gather expert
opinions from a number of people without holding a group meeting. Delphi group
participants never meet face to face. In fact, they may be located in different
cities and never see each other. The following steps take place in a Delphi group:
1.
The problem is identified, and
members are asked to write down potential solutions through a series of
carefully designed questionnaires.
2.
Each member independently and
anonymously completes the first questionnaire.
3.
Results of the first
questionnaire are compiled at a central location and then redistributed to the
original respondents.
4.
After reviewing the results,
members are asked again for their solutions. This process usually triggers new
solutions or causes amendments to the original position.
5.
Steps 3 and 4 are repeated as
often as necessary until a consensus is reached.
2. Write down the names of
quantitative and qualitative methods that you can remember.
3. Comprehension check.
Read the text again more
carefully. Complete the sentences with the appropriate ending, a, b, or c.
1.
The productivity index is …
a.
the indicator of improved
production due to skilled employees.
b.
a figure that shows the
relationship between the output and the number
of workers needed to produce it.
c.
a number that indicates the
dependence of production on workers’ skills.
2.Diana
calculates that …
a.
the annual sales figure per
one salesperson in Hubert's store makes $85,000.
b.
each salesperson in Hubert's
store earns $85,000 annually.
c.
each salesperson in Hubert's
store gives an account of sales figures that make $85,000 yearly.
3.
To determine the number of
salespersons that will be needed, Diana has to …
a.
correlate such variables as
resident population, competitors, economic state of the people, and the number
of students admitted to the local building and trade school.
b.
find out the number of
correlated variables that are essential for regression analysis.
c.
use data about people living in the area,
competitors’ strong points, business environment and students enrolled in the
local building and trade school.
4.
Qualitative forecasting
methods can be used when …
a.
no previous statistics are
available to develop quantitative forecasts.
b.
the strategic goal of future
business activities is unspecified.
c.
the past business activities
are likely to continue in the future.
5.
Quantitative forecasts may not
be accurate if …
a.
the company increases the
number of employees.
b.
the firm increases the output.
c.
the business launches a lot of
diverse products.
6.
Qualitative methods are
concerned with …
a.
planning of business
operations.
b.
using information obtained by
statistical methods.
c.
collecting required data from
the specialists.
7.
Unlike nominal groups, Delphi
group participants …
a.
have to rank different ideas.
b.
can feel free to speak their
opinions with guaranteed anonymity.
c.
are not asked to write down
their judgements.
VII. Discussion
Working in small groups,
compare and contrast the nominal group technique and the Delphi group
technique. Give your ideas about the advantages and disadvantages of these two
techniques when they are employed in forecasting demand for employees.
VIII. Individual work. Texts 32, 33
TEXT 32 Professional managers
The literature on organization is both extensive and old, but
organization is not the same as management. Much of the literature on management history
is American in origin and, not surprisingly, attributes most of the credit for the development of management to US originators. Jacques (1997) comments:
Moderns appear to be superior to other people because we see clearly
what has hitherto been seen through the eyes of bias and
superstition; English are superior among Moderns because they are the ones who produced the entire body of early work; Americans are
superior to British because they have superior character. That
this hierarchy of ethnocentrism is commonplace in American writing makes it no less worthy of comment.
One of the principal originators of modern management highlighted in the
US literature was, in fact, neither English nor (born) an American. The Scot, Daniel
McCallum, was general superintendent of the Eric Railroad in the USA. This railroad,
in common with other large rail companies, was finding
it difficult to operate profitably, unlike
smaller local railroads. He wrote
(see Chandler, 1962) that:
A superintendent of a road fifty miles in length can give its business
his professional attention and may be constantly on the line
engaged in the direction of its details; each person is personally known to him, and all questions in relation to its business are at once
presented and acted upon; and any system
however imperfect may under such circumstances prove
comparatively successful.
However, McCallum
contended, when the railroad is ‘five hundred miles in length a very different state exists. Any system which might be applicable to the
business and extent of a short road would be found entirely inadequate to the wants of a long
one.’
He set about creating a management system in which responsibility for
the railroad was split into
geographical divisions, each
of manageable size.
Superintendents were given
responsibility for operations within their respective divisions but had
to provide detailed reports to the central headquarters. There McCallum and his assistants were able to coordinate the whole operation. McCallum advocated a number of management principles:
●
good discipline
●
specific and detailed
job descriptions
●
frequent and accurate reporting of performance
●
pay and promotion based on merit
●
clearly defined hierarchy of superiors and subordinates
●
enforcement of personal
responsibility and accountability
●
the search for and correction of errors.
The lines of authority from headquarters to superintendents and then to
their subordinates were laid out clearly
on paper – effectively on an organizational chart. Other railroads
copied this system and were able to
become effective and profitable. In turn, these ideas spread to other US businesses.
By 1900 the USA had undergone several decades of rapid, large-scale industrialization. Large American companies such as Heinz and Singer Sewing Machines had
the characteristics of modern,
highly-structured organizations. They produced standardized consumer durables for the mass market.
These organizations required
a supply of trained managers. Notionally selected on the basis of ability and expertise – rather than
family connections – they needed to know how to organize, reward and motivate their staff. In the USA, state and private universities were opened to cater for this new professional need.
The first companies
of equivalent size and organization did not arise in Britain and the Commonwealth until the 1920s and management education was similarly late in developing. Like most European or Asian companies they still tended to employ
relatives or to promote long-standing workers
to management roles.
Reliability and ability
to impose discipline were held to be more
important than technical knowledge. Increasingly,
however, managers (especially those
at a senior level) developed vested interests incompatible with those of the working-classes (labour)
and shareholders (capital).
A distinctive form of scientific management was taken
up in the new high-volume production industries. This came to be known as Fordism after the mass production methods used by Henry Ford for automobile manufacturing. Jelinek (quoted in Mintzberg, 1994,
p.21) considers that Taylor ‘for the first time made possible
the large-scale coordination of details – planning and policy-level thinking, above and beyond
the details of the task itself ’. This
produced a new division of labour, splitting
tasks and their coordination into different
roles. So management had become
‘abstracted’ from day-to-day activities, allowing it to ‘concentrate on exceptions’. Taylor’s
ideas were developed
further by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth
who made valiant efforts to turn human beings into automatons. Their bizarre concepts
included the ‘therblig’ (Gilbreth backwards) as a measure of work (Rose,
1975, p.84). Frank Gilbreth
became famous for his study of
bricklaying in which he reduced the movements involved from 15 to eight, and increased the number of bricks laid from 120 an hour to 350.
Smith (1948, p.144) gave an example of a simple motion
study using the Gilbreths’ terminology, a
bottle of gum and a brush:
|
Actual movements
Generalized description |
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What was the point of such a motion study? Smith quoted a paper by H.G. Maule from the
Journal of the Institution of British
Launderers, May 1935, which reported on use of the methodology to investigate the
process of folding sheets:
The sequence of movements was: collect a sheet as it came from the
calendar, fold it, place the folded article on a table. In the
course of timing he noticed that a disproportionate amount of time was taken in the last movement owing to the position of a table on which
the folded articles were placed. By calculating the time
taken and multiplying it by the number of sheets folded in a week he found that 20 miles a week were walked unnecessarily. … By a slight rearrangement of the table this was altered, and yet no one had noticed it before this.
Huczynski and Buchanan (2000) argue that Taylorism
and related techniques are more prevalent today than ever. Japanese just-in-time techniques
bear a number of similarities to some aspects of scientific management. Scientific management was one of the first of the ‘one best way’ methodologies of dealing with people management.
|
Scientific management |
|
In 1903,
F.W.Taylor – an American engineer – published Shop
Management, outlining a system for extracting maximum
output from workers. Later,
his methods were presented as The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). Controversial at the time,
and still the subject of debate, Taylor is quoted frequently as the inspiration for many modern industrial practices – including Japanese production methods. He outlined a systematic but controversial
programme based on: ● rudimentary time and motion studies ● selection of ‘first-class men’
for the job ● premium pay for a
‘fair day’s work’. Taylor’s
ideas were not original. They embodied
attitudes of the time, including strict discipline to control
soldiering (‘slacking’ or ‘skiving’). Taylor saw
two forms: (a)
‘individual’ soldiering
where workers’ were naturally
lazy; and (b) ‘systematic’ soldiering where workers
conspired to maintain a comfortable work
rate. Activities were timed
to prevent employees from taking it easy. As
chief engineer at the Midvale Steel Company,
Taylor sacked slow workers,
cut piece-rates, and brought in non-union workers.
Productivity was
raised by standardizing and simplifying procedures into specified and
unvarying jobs. Employees were not
allowed to think
about their jobs,
bring in new
ideas, or vary tasks to alleviate boredom. Broad craft knowledge was no longer
required – knowledge was transferred to the manager. Taylor’s basic concept was the ‘task
idea’: planning out
every job in minute detail; giving precise instructions on what
to do, in what order,
at what speed;
and eliminating wasteful
or unnecessary actions. This produced ‘one best way’ for any task. At the Bethlehem Steel
Company he applied his principles to shovelling and
handling pig iron (Taylor, 1947,
p.43) : Now, gentlemen, shovelling is a great
science compared with
pig-iron handling. I dare say
that most of you gentlemen know that a good many pig-iron handlers can never learn
to shovel right;
the ordinary pig-iron handler is not
the type of man well
suited to shovelling. He is too
stupid; there is too much
mental strain, too
much knack required of a shoveler for the pig-iron handler to take kindly to shovelling. The plant
employed 400–600 men to move
several million tons
of material each
year. Taylor found the
optimum load for shovelling, designed better shovels and scheduled carefully timed
rest-pauses. He was able to achieve the same output
from 140 men with an average 60 per cent bonus, virtually halving costs. He argued that the men were not being overworked but simply doing their
jobs more sensibly. Taylor
used Henry Knolle – a
‘first-class’ labourer immortalized in management literature as ‘Schmidt’ –to demonstrate the motivating effect
of premium pay. Knolle’s pig-
iron handling increased four-fold to 50 tons a day, for a bonus equivalent to half his normal pay. Only one in eight workers
could match this performance, the remainder being given
lower-paid work. Many
employers used
Taylor’s system
to increase produc
tivity, but without
extra pay. In fact,
wages were often reduced on the grounds
that the rationalized jobs
could be classified as unskilled. The
work was given
to people, such
as new immigrants, who would accept
lower pay. In his writings, Taylor presented his work at Bethlehem
Steel as a success. In fact, there were angry
reactions from workers, managers and others.
Press publicity on likely redundancies, threats of industrial
action, and management resentment led to Taylor’s
dismissal. He spent the rest of
his life publicizing his theories. He believed that he had developed a science that would legitimize the professional status
of managers. Rose (1975,
p.32) describes Taylorism as ‘an
instructive reminder of how “scientific” theories of workers’ behaviour which fail when actually applied
in industry can none the less acquire
a substitute vitality as managerial ideologies’. In other words, ideas
which do not work in practice can still be sold to other managers! As an early management guru, Taylor
used recognizable tactics: ●
he developed a
relatively simple set of principles ●
took personal
credit for devising them ●
gave them a pretentious name
– scientific management ●
and publicized
them extensively. What relevance do Taylor’s
methods have for
modern human resource management? |
TEXT 33
The human factor
The ‘science’
in scientific management was doubtful. At the same point in time, however, academic researchers had begun to take an interest in the practical
aspects of work. Work psychology was pioneered
by the German psychologist Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916) who moved to the USA and became responsible for a research
laboratory at Harvard.
Between 1900 and 1914, he applied the
techniques of the young science of psychology to issues such as the selection
of engineers to operate new machines, and the efficiency of various industrial practices (Thomson, 1968,
p.133). Work psychology is deemed to
have taken off after the publication of his Psychology and Industrial Efficiency in 1913. In Germany and the UK the demands of war boosted
further research. In Britain, the Health of Munition Workers Committee (1915–17) was required to: ‘. .
. consider and investigate the relation of hours of labour and other conditions
of employment, including
methods of work, to the production of fatigue, having regard
both to industrial efficiency and to the preservation of health amongst the workers’ (quoted in
Thomson, 1968, p.345).
In 1919, the researchers involved formed the UK National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP), a body similar to the Australian Institute of
Industrial Psychology founded in 1917. These
organizations investigated and researched working conditions, and developed vocational guidance and selection techniques. In New Zealand,
vocational guidance dates from 1913 where it was offered
by the Christchurch branch of the YMCA. Initially the work of occupational
psychologists bordered on physiology as they investigated fatigue and monotony. It had been believed
that fatigue was caused by a build-up
of toxins in the blood. It was even thought that an elixir
could be found
which would neutralize these chemicals; when injected into exhausted workers
this could allow them to work indefinitely! The researchers proved conclusively that fatigue was not purely
physiological – it was also psychological (Rose, 1975, p.70).
Their work
directly countered the myth that working longer hours produced greater out- put. In their research on monotony
the NIIP psychologists took a deliberately anti-Taylorist
perspective. They confirmed
Taylor’s views on the value of rest pauses but argued against the notion of ‘one best way by a first-class man’.
The simple truth
was that individual tasks could be done equally effectively in a variety
of ways by a diverse
range of people.
Different people had their own ways of performing effectively: they worked more efficiently when allowed to vary their own working methods.
It became clear
also that money
was not the sole motivator for working people: the social relations between workers influenced
their attitude to the job and their productivity. Workers were
human beings and should be treated as such: the researchers had identified the
importance of human factors.
In effect they had anticipated the conclusions of the more famous ‘Hawthorne studies’, but their reports – expressed
in dry scientific language – made for dull reading,
and were not accessible to a wide audience.
Moreover, their income came from industrial commissions which were expected
to be confidential. The most positive response
came from the chocolate makers, Cadbury and Rowntree,
which were Quaker-owned and humanitarian in attitude. They were receptive to ideas about
training, vocational guidance, staff welfare, and joint worker–management councils. Many, if not all, employers were not
like-minded. The soft approach of the NIIP also had a hard centre, in the shape of efficiency measures such as selection tests to identify
suitable workers for specific jobs.
Psychological tests for selection, or ‘psychometric tests’,
were extensively developed
in the USA and the UK from World War I through
to World War II. Some two million
Americans were tested during World War I alone. Their particular priority
was the identification of ‘sub-normals’ at one extreme
and officer material
at the other. After the war, testing
became a lucrative commercial activity in the USA but introduced a worrying
element of ‘scientific’ racism which has not been entirely eliminated.
|
Henry Ford Ford made his first car in 1893 and formed
the Ford Motor Company
in 1903. He started the company
with 11 other
men, together putting
up US$28 000. Eventually he bought out his associates and Henry Ford became the company. According to Beynon, (1973, p.18): He was The Man. And he was to remain
The Man until
his death. Throughout his life he maintained a single-minded, autocratic hold over his company, entirely convinced of his right to run it as he thought fit. Ford
standardized products
(‘any colour as long as its black’), applied modern technology to a flowing production line and allocated workers’
jobs according to Taylorist principles. Ford’s plant
at Highland Park,
Michigan, was dedicated to a single
mass- market car – the Model T. The main building
at Highland Park was four storeys
high, 865ft long and 75ft wide – a staggering 260 000 square
feet – and was the largest building in the state
of Michigan (McIntyre, 2000,
p.271). His major
innovation, the moving
assembly line, was
inspired by Chicago slaughter- houses where
vast numbers of cattle were ‘disassembled’ on a moving
line. At Ford every worker
had one task
such as fitting a door to each car
as they moved
up the line. This development was given considerable publicity and Ford made
every effort to
pre- sent himself as a great engineer. In fact, there
was nothing new
about the equipment. The distinctive feature of the
assembly line was
the organization of human resources. Assembly workers were allowed a minimum time
to complete an operation before the car continued to the next
stage. ‘The idea
is that the
man ... must
have every second necessary but not a single
unnecessary second’ (Ford, 1922,
quoted in Beynon, 1973,
p.19). A harsh attitude permeated the company. Employees were watched closely and
were regarded as objects rather than human
beings. They were to
do as they
were told – to
be hired and fired
arbitrarily. Whilst
maximizing production efficiency, assembly-line manufacturing led
to high rates
of absenteeism and
employee turnover. In
1913 Ford
needed 13 000–14 000
workers but over 50
000 came and
went in that
year. Something had to be done. In 1914
Ford announced a package deal for his
workers: the ‘Five
Dollar Day’, presented as a profit-sharing system that more than
doubled workers’ wage
rates. However, it included a number of changes which
benefited the company. Ford did
not agree with Taylor’s simplistic incentive system. He never paid
on a ‘piece-work’ basis, believing that it led to rushed or ‘botched’ work.
Instead his new
scheme increased
management control of workers’ performance through a combination of: ● Job evaluation, leading
to a thorough rationalization of workflow. ● Pay grades, matched to the
‘value’ or difficulty of jobs. ● Disqualifying clauses, which prevented workers with
less than six
months’ service, men under 21 and all women from receiving US$5 a day. ‘Young ladies’
were expected to get married and leave
the company. Finally, eligible workers only received the full pay rate if their behaviour and personal habits at work and home were deemed to be satisfactory. Alcohol
and tobacco were frowned upon; gambling or taking in
boarders were unacceptable. Ford believed that high wages
should be paid only to the morally deserving, since the others
would spend it unwisely. A Sociological Department was established with 30 investigators checking workers domestic circumstances and spending habits. Within two
years, 90 per
cent of Ford workers were thought good enough to receive
US$5 a day,
but investigators could recommend the loss of six months’ bonus
at any time if their
lifestyles were not accept-
able. Ford believed in the virtue
of hard work but did not value
charity – the poor
deserved their fate. He never expressed any concern about
the drudgery and
boredom of the assembly line,
considering most people
to be incapable of any better. |
IX. Grammar. Third Conditional
Third Conditional
|
if + Past perfect |
would + have + Past participle |
|
Example |
Explanation |
|
If you had driven more
carefully, you would not have had an accident. |
Criticism: You had an accident because you didn't drive carefully enough. |
|
If we had played a little better,
we could have won the game. |
Regret: We didn't play well, so we lost the game. |
Mixed
Conditionals
|
Types |
Example |
|
First Conditional + Third Conditional |
If she is as clever as you say she is, she would have been rich by now. |
|
Third Conditional + Second Conditional |
If I had had your advantages, I could finish the construction of a house
now. |
Ex.1Translate the sentences (The Third Conditional):
1. If she had studied, she would
have passed the exam.
2. If I hadn't eaten so much, I
wouldn't have felt so sick.
3. She wouldn't have been tired
if she had gone to bed earlier.
4. He would have been on time for
the interview if he had left the house at nine.
5 If you had saved your money,
you could have bought a new flat.
6. If it had snowed, we could
have gone skiing.
7. If we had taken a taxi, we
wouldn't have missed the plane.
Ex.2.
Translate the sentences (Mixed Conditional):
1. If I were you, I (to check)
the facts before I accused them.
2. If she were in your
position, she (to help) him by now.
3. If you (not to remind ) me
before, I (to forget) about it now.
4. If they (to invite ) me
yesterday, I (to come) to their place tonight.
Ex.3. Choose the correct form to complete the sentence:
1. If I had gone to England, I ______ missed Rachel's visit.
had…… would have
2. If I'd gone to University, I ______ liked to have studied Design.
had …….would have
3. I ______ gone to the cocktail party if I hadn't had too much work on.
had ……..would have
4. I ______ recognized you if somebody hadn't told me who you were.
hadn't wouldn't have
5. I would have bought a Mercedes if I ______ been able to afford it.
Had……… would have
6. I ______ sent you a postcard if I hadn't lost your address.
had would have
7. I wouldn't have told you if I ______ known that you would get upset.
Had would have
8. I'd have come in earlier if I ______ known how much urgent work there
was.
had would have
9. I ______ forgotten all about it if you hadn't reminded me.
had would have
10. I'd have helped you if you ______ asked me.
had would have