LECTURE III
SEMANTIC FIELDS
1 AREAS, SCRIPTS, TOPICS, CATEGORIES
2 LANGUAGE OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS IN
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES (“Hedging”)
3 TERMS USED IN STUDY AND TEST SITUATIONS
4 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
AREAS, SCRIPTS, TOPICS, CATEGORIES
When learning new vocabulary, try to attach the new
words to something previously learned. It helps if you try to categorize or
group related words that share a «semantic field» (an area of meaning). In
English it pays to focus on the way a word looks (as opposed to the way it
sounds) when trying to decide what other words it might be
related to. (Many words sound alike but are spelled
very differently. Chances are they are very different in meaning e.g. bare —
bear; affect — effect.)
8. 1 Semantic Fields
List at least 5 words you
associate with each of the following areas. Do any of your words cross areas?
ECONOMICS PSYCHOLOGY RELIGION MUSIC YOUR
OWN FIELD OF STUDY
8. 2 The Vocabulary of the
Script
Think
of at least 5 words which relate to each of the following
«scenes». Do any of your words cross scenes?
A RESTAURANT THE LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY
THE DENTIST
8. 3 Suggest a Topic
For
each of the following word sets, suggest an area to which it relates, the topic
of a text in which you are most likely to find most of the words. I. leaders,
executives, abilities, |2. nuclear weapons, aggression, manager, performance,
|geopolitical considerations, job, production, supervisor, |deterrence,
restraint, selection, qualities, attributes, |attack, civilian targets
personality traits Do any of these words cross topics?
8. 4 Imagine a Scene — Suggest a Script
What
do all the following words have in common? For each of them, imagine a specific
scene that it suggests. Tip ransom allowance refund honorarium bounty tuition
retainer bonus rent fare child support bus money wage salary reward alimony
prize
8. 5 Identify the Topic
In
the following short «text» , what words are used to
identify and to refer to the topic? What is the topic? What replacement or
substitution words or phrases are used instead of
repeating it? Is there any ellipsis (word(s) or idea(s) left out)?
«Did
Gordon give us any work to do for tomorrows?»
«Of
course! 5 pages to read and ten questions to answer.»
«Have
you finished doing it?»
«Yes,
most of it».
«Does
that mean I can get it from you this evening?»
«Yes, if you'll do the same favor for me some time.»
8.
6 Co — reference or Synonymous Reference
In
each of the following sets, some of the words have more in common with each
other than they do with the other words in the set. Group together those words
in each set which share a common meaning. Specify what
you think that meaning is.
1.
obligatory, compulsory, binding, voluntary, enforceable
2.
legal, bona fide, legitimate, illicit, lawful
3.
rule, law, institution, custom, violation, precedent,
principle, standard
4.
allow, permit, grant, sanction, censure
5.
calm, concerned, anguished, distressed, agitated
6.
achievement, calamity, catastrophe, disaster
7.
provoke, please, irritate, annoy
8.
dispute, disagreement, accord, argument, strain
9.
biased, prejudiced, subjective, objective
10.
conclude, deduce, infer, introduce
11.
judge, appraise, evaluate, ignore, assess
12.
anticipation, expectation, retrospection, plan, intention
Other Useful Groupings of Words
Words of related or overlapping meaning can sometimes
be interchanged. They usually vary, however, in the degree to which they
express a given concept.
8.7 Downtoners and Emphasizers
Words that are related in meaning may be positioned on
a continuum according to the degree to which they express a given quality .
a.
Position the following set of words on
the continuum going from too little (insufficient) to too much (superfluous)..
An Insufficient Amount
A Superfluous Amount
generous, bountiful, ample, scarce, plentiful, sufficient, excessive,
impoverished, adequate, lavish, deficient, sparse, skimpy, profuse,
substantial, meagre,
adequate, limited, abundant
If we want to strengthen or weaken a value word, we
can choose an emphasizer
to make it even stronger, or a downtoner to make
it weaker.
b.
Place the following sets of emphasizers
on a continuum:
Emphasizers: certainly, definitely, fully, terribly, thoroughly,
absolutely, completely, entirely, enormously, intensely, etc.
c.
Place the following sets of downtoners on a
continuum.
Downtoners: partly, almost, slightly, hardly,
moderately, scarcely, possibly, quite, somewhat, rather, etc..
Combine words from a. and b. and a. and c. to illustrate the strengthening or
weakening effect.
8.8
Place each of the following word sets on a scale as indicated
. A scale of:
1.
size — from small to large
huge,
immense, microscopic, giant, minuscule, considerable, gargantuan, titanic,
mammoth, miniature, massive, dwarf-like, average, colossal, infinitesimal
2.
probability — from improbable to likely
feasible, apt, likely, certain, definite, doubtful,
conclusive, sure, impossible, decided, possible
3.
frequency — from infrequent to frequent
often,
seldom, occasionally, never, once in a while, eventually, rarely, hardly ever,
sometimes, hardly
4.
quantity — from a little to a lot
much,
many, few, hardly any, a mere few, a lot more than, most, a mere handful, the
bulk of, the majority, massive amounts, some, several, a minority, not more
than, somewhat less than, an infinite amount, countless, innumerable, numberless
5.
quality — from inferior to superior
excellent, shabby, precious, rare, poor, genuine, good, feeble,
sophisticated, crude, fine, rough
6.
development — from increasing to decreasing
magnify, enlarge, minimize, supplement, multiply, augment,
swell, reduce, prolong, diminish, expand, extend, amplify, maximize, shrink,
condense, contract, miniaturize
7. disagreement/agreement — from, disagreement to
agreement
balance, accord, discord, concord, confluence, harmony,
concurrence, unanimity, cooperation, disharmony, disunity, dissonance, congruence,
consensus, dissent, dissention, controversy
8
helpfulness — from hidrance to help,
benefit, hindrance, impediment, prevention, support, aid,
prophylactic, assistance, obstruction, restraint, restriction, furtherance,
repression, suppression, fosterage, sponsorship
9.
achievement — from failure to success
attainment, failure, success, accomplishment, prosperity,
fulfillment, realization, completion, perfection, consummation, triumph,
breakdown, downfall, collapse, crash
10. Male/Female Words
While
English is not considered a «gender» language in the sense that all words are
specifically «marked» masculine or feminine, there are some
words that are specifically masculine or feminine.
Place
the following words in the appropriate column: «male», «female», or «unmarked».
Indicate whether any of these words have any further specified meaning. (E.g.
mullah — male [ in Islamic countries), title of
respect for a person who is learned in, teaches or expounds the sacred law; ii.
[in Turkey] a provincial judge.)
queen
minister
mother
priest
child
politician
employee
adolescent
nurse
Esquire
(Esq.)
Mrs.
actress
princess
director
lass
lad
soldier
waiter
chairman
astronaut
Ms.
spinster
master
stewardess
conductor
caliph
mistress
nun
ballerina
maiden
Mr.
bachelor
LANGUAGE OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS IN SCIENTIFIC
ARTICLES (“Hedging”)
Hedging Words — the Language of Results and
Conclusions
1 Results and Conclusions:
The following statements have been
taken from a psychology article reporting on an experiment set up to
study the reactions of witnesses to an accident. Which of the statements
reports a Result (R) of the experiment and which represents a
Conclusion (C)? Is there a difference in the language of the reporting?
_
1. It is not our impression that the non-responders had decided not to act.
Rather, they were still in a state of non-decision.
_
2. Subjects who had met the victim were faster to report his distress than
other persons from sixperson
groups.
_
3. The groups ranked the same on speed as they did on response rate.
_
4. Apparently the ability to visualize a specific
distressed individual increases the likelihood of helping him.
_
5. The situation created an avoidance-avoidance type conflict. On the one hand,
subjects wanted to avoid guilt and shame for not helping; on the other hand,
they wanted to avoid making fools of themselves by over-reacting.
_
6. The behavior of other bystanders and the relationship among them seem to be
important.
_
7. A stranger who has been programmed not to react is
the most inhibiting, a neutral stranger next; and a friend the least.
_
8. Of those who heard the accident while alone in the waiting room, 70 percent
offered to help the victim before she left the room.
Language of «Hedging»
Place the following words or expressions on a
continuum from UNCERTAIN to CERTAIN
UNCERTAIN____________________________CERTAIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12
a.
Undoubtedly...
g. In our opinion...
b.
It seems... h. We may conclude that...
c.
Surely...
i.
It may be assumed that...
d.
It may be that...
j. The results are clearly...
e.
I am not all that certain that... k. Possibly...
f.
It is not at all certain that...
l. this suggests that...
TERMS USED IN STUDY AND TEST
SITUATIONS
8.11 Which of the terms in the following list
expresses what each of the teachers has in mind?
identify; evaluate; draw a diagram of; review; enumerate;
cause; compare; analysis; summarize; analyze; describe, outline; list;
justify; define.
1.
A music teacher wants the class to show that they understand clearly the
meaning of some special terms used in music
He
would ask them to _________________ the term.
2.
A literature instructor wants students to demonstrate their understanding of
the similarities in two poems written at different times and places. He would
ask them to__________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
the poems.
3.
A political science teacher wants the class to give a sympathetic version of
why the United States sent troops into a certain country. He would ask them to___________________________________the
invasion.
4.
Next, the students are expected to give an objective
view of this same event. He would ask them to give
the_____________________________________________ of the invasion.
5.
Music students are expected to mention all the
contributions of jazz to modern music. They would be asked
to ____________________________ these contributions.
6.
A Shakespeare instructor wants students to present a clear picture of the
construction of the Elizabethan stage. He would ask them
to_________________________ the stage.
7.
A history teacher wants the class to show that they know the main stages in the
development of industrial power in England. He would ask them to provide an___________________________________of
these stages.
8.
Students in an art class are assigned a painting by another member of the
class; they must mention its strengths and weaknesses and decide whether or not it was successful. They would
be asked to ___________ and to __________________________it.
9.
A class in Spanish history is expected to present
briefly an account of the development of Franco's political views. They would
be asked to___________this
development.
10.
Students are given a list of names of people and
places; they are expected to tell who or what these names represent. They would be asked to__________the
items on the list.
11.
A sociology teacher wants the class to give a thoughtful statement concerning
the various aspects of the role of television in the lives of preschool
children. He would ask them to
provide an____________of
the subject.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
A writer frequently uses figurative language in order
to explain an idea: to explain a new idea in terms of an image or association
with something familiar, or to make this idea more «colorful». One way to understand
figurative language is to try to capture the qualities, properties or
characteristics of the already known image and relate what is relevant to the
new idea.
Some
frequent images that are used in figurative language
are words related to,
i. Body parts
ii.
Animals
iii.
Light/Dark
iv.
The Weather
v.
The Military
1. Suggest what a writer wants to express by each of
the following: the brow of a hill, the mouth of a river; the voice of the town;
the heart of the matter; the sinews of war; the hands
of time; to live from hand to mouth. Can you suggest any other such images
related to body parts?
2. What do you think the writer means when he says:
it's a dog's life; she's a snake, he's a pig; he's a mule; the month of March
comes in like a lion and goes out like a lamb; I got it straight from the
horse's mouth, you're being catty; she looks mousey; they're nothing but sheep!
3. What do you think the writer wants us to understand
by each of the following expressions: to throw light on the matter; he wants to
be shown in the best light possible; he's in the
limelight now; it's an illuminating idea, what a brilliant piece of work! don't always be so gloomy; that was a dark day; The Age of
Enlightenment; I see a brighter future; there are sunny prospects for the oil
industry; the future looks bleak.
4. Examine the following statements, phrases or
headlines and indicate what the writer wants to express when he says:
a.
cutthroat competition
b.
we're bending over backwards to please them.
c.
The recovery of Fiat and VW follows a period when the economy has been ailing.
d.
The strike fizzled out.
e.
Ben and Jerry's (an ice cream firm) is getting fat on America's growing
appetite for super-premium ice cream.
f.
They planted $500,000 in seed money for the research.
g.
The Conservatives routed the Labor party at the elections and Labor has been in
retreat ever since.
5. Suggest other examples of figurative language that
you have encountered in readings in this course. (See especially What Is A
Historical Fact?, in Part IV.)
APPENDIX
PREFIXES, STEMS, (ROOTS) SUFFIXES
A: PREFIXES
|
Prefix Ab-, abs— (a-,an-) ad-(ac-,af-, ag-,al-,ap- ar-,as-,at-) ambi- amphi- ana- ante- anti- arch- auto- bi- by- circum- con-(co-,col- corn-,cor-) |
Usual Meaning away from, without, lacking to, toward both around, on both sides back, again, out of before against first, chief self two, twice close, incidental around - with, together |
Examples Abnormal, abstract, abnegate, Amoral, Amazon, anonymous, Apathethic, aversion accede, adhere, aggressive, affix, allow, appeal, arrest, assert, attendance ambiguous, ambidextrous amphibious, amphitheatre anachronism anteroom, antediluvian antisemitic, antidemocratic archangel, archetypical autobiography, automatic bi-annual, bilateral, bisect by-law, byproduct circumvent, circumnavigate concede collaborate cooperate, combine, correlate |
|
contra- counter- de- demi- di-, dia- dis-(di-) dys- en- epi- equi- eu- ex- (e-) extra- hetero homo- hyper- hypo- in- (im-,ir-) in-(il-, im-, ir-) inter intra-,intro- iso- macro-,magni- mal- micro-,mini- mid- mis- mono-, uni- multi-,poly- non- ob-(oc-,op-) omni-, pan- para- per- peri- post- pro-, prim- pro- pseudo- quadra- |
against contrary down, do tne
opposite half, lower two,through, between away from, fall to, (not) bad,abnormal make over, across,outside equal, same good out, from beyond, very other, different same, self homonym, above, excessive under, less than in, into, inside not between, among within, inside alike, equal large, great bad, wrong small middle, halfway bad, wrong single, one many not against, to all beside, for the purpose of through, completely around, surrounding after, behind first, before forward, before false, unreal four |
Contradict counterproposal, countersue depress, depend, decentralize demigod, demitasse diameter, diagram, dichotomy dismiss, digress, diversion dysfunction, dyslexia enable, enlarge epidemic, epidermis, epilogue equivalent, equilateral euthanasia, eugenic, euphoria exclude, emit, evasion extralegal, extraordinary heterosexual, heterogeneous homophon, homosexual hyperactive, hypertension hypodermic, hypo-allergenic indict, immerse, important institute, irradiate insecure, illegal, immoral, impure, irregular intervene, interpret intramural, introspection isometric, isolate macroeconomics, magnify malfunction, malpractice microscope, minimum midweek, midsection misdemeanor, mistake, monogamy, unilateral multipurpose, polygram nonsense object, obstruct, oppose observe, occur omniscient, panchromatic parallel, paralegal, parasol perceive, perennial, perfect perimeter, peripheral postpone, postdoctorate preview, pcecedent,
primary progress, procedure pseudonym, pseudoscientific quadrennial |
|
quasi- re- retro se- semi-, hemi- soli- sub-(suf-, sug-,sup-,sus-, super-,supra- sur- (sue-) syn-, sym- tele- trans- tri- ultra- un- |
as if, seemingly again, back backward away from half, partially only, single under, below, lower above, greater, beyond over, on like far, long distance across three extreme, beyond not, opposite, reverse |
quasi-judicial review, regard, reject, react retrogress, retroactive seclude, seduce, separate semiliterate, hemisphere solitude, soliloquy subordinate, suffer support, suspicion superimpose, superior surpass, surface, success synonym, sympathy telephone, television transport, transfer trilateral ultraconservative undo, unlawful. |
Â: NUMERICAL PREFIXES USED IN
MEASUREMENTS
|
Name
|
Symbol* |
Meaning
|
Unit
Multiplier |
|
giga- mega- kilo- hecto- deka- deci- centi- milli- micro- nano- pico- femto— atto- |
T G M k h da d ñ M u n p f a |
trillion billion million thousand hundred ten one-tenth one-hundredth one-thousandth one-millionth one-billionth one-trillionth one-quadrillionth one-quintillionth |
10^12 10^9 l0^6 l0^3 10^2 10^1 10^-1 10^-2 10^-3 10^-6 l0^-9 10^-12 l0^-15 10^-18 |
* Le Systeme
International d'Unites (SI), International System
of Units
C: QUANTITATIVE
PREFIXES
|
Prefix Meaning mon
one un one bi two, twice, |
Example of Use monotone (single tone or key) monoxide (contains one oxygen atom per molecule) unicellular (one-celled) unilateral (one-sided) bicycle (two wheels) |
|
double di du ter three tri tetr four quadr a without an
lacking heter
mixed horn
similar
throughout hyper above, over,
excessive hypo less than,
below,
deficient is
equal,
same micr small poly many,
much tel distant, far |
bifurcate (two branches, forked) dimorphic (in two forms) duplex (double, twofold) tertiary (third rank or stage) tripod (three-footed stand) tritium (hydrogen isotope with 3 nuclear particles). tetrachloride (four chlorine atoms) tetrahedron (solid with four faces) quadruped (four-footed animal) abiotic (without living organisms) anarchy (without government) heterogeneous (a mixture of kinds) heteromorph (exhibiting diversity of form) homogenized milk. homograft (tissue from a similar type) hypertoxic (excessively poisonous) hyperesthesia (unusually high sensitivity) hypodermic (below the skin) hypothyroid (thyroid insufficiency) isosceles triangle (equal sides, equal angles) isomorphs (same shapes or forms) isothermal (equal temperatures) microscope (view of small things) microbiology (study of tiny living things) polychrome (many-colored) polynuclear (having many nuclei) telescope (distant view) television (seeing at a distance) |
D: STEMS/ROOTS
|
Stem/Root |
Usual Meaning |
Examples |
|
ag, act arch anim anthrop astro aud belli bene, bon biblio bio capit ced, cess cent chron corp cosmo cycl demo die, diet duce, duct erg, urg ethno fact, fict fed, fid fer fin fort gamy gen geo grad, gress gram, graph homo, human hydro ject jud locu,loqu mani, manu mem metr miss, mit mob, mot morph mort nom, nym nov ology ortho pathy, pass |
do, drive chief, leader life man stars listen, hear war good, well book life head, chief go, move hundred time body world circle, wheel people say, tell lead work race, nation do, make faith, trust carry end strong marriage become, produce earth step, go write man water throw Judge speak hand memory measure send move form, shape death name, law new study of correct, traight felling, |
agent, reaction anarchist, archetype animal, inanimate anthropology, misanthrope astrophysics, astronaut auditorium, inaudible rebel, belligerant benefit, bona fides bibliography, bibliophile biology, autobiography capital, capitulate proceed, excess century, bicentennial synchronize, anachronism habeas corpus, incorporate microcosm, cosmonaut tricycle, encyclopedia democratic, epidemic predict, dictator, indict conduct, deduce energy, ergometry,
metallurgy ethnology, ethnographic manufacture, fiction confident, bona fide, federal transfer, differ, inference infinite, final fortify, reinforce monogamy, bigamy, polygamous generate, engender, genetics geology, geography, geometry gradual, congress, aggressive graphology, telegraph homicide, humanity, hominoid hydrology, anhydrous reject, interjection prejudice, subjudice elocution, circumloquacious manipulate, manufacture remember, memorial metrics, perimeter transmit, permit, dismiss motive, automobile amorphous, anthropomorphic post mortem, rigor mortis nominate, nomothetical,
synonym, patronym novel, renovate psychology, penology orthodox, orthodontist |
