1 INTRODUCTION
TO AN APPROACH TO READING
2 VARIETIES OF MEANING
3 WHAT THE WRITER MEANS
4 WHAT THE WRITER ASSUMES THE READER ALREADY KNOWS
1. CONCEPTUAL MEANING
This is the kind of meaning
that may be embodied in a single word, or a part of a word, or in a complete
text made up of many words organized in the form of a discourse. Single words
can embody simple concepts, or notions (e.g., «water») as well as the more
complex variety (e.g., «intelligence»). Sometimes, however, an entire book may
be written just to explain a single complex concept such as intelligence. Units
even smaller than a word can also embody a simple concept (e.g., the English
suffix -s, which expresses the concept of plurality).
2. PROPOSITIONAL MEANING
This is the kind of meaning
that can be embodied in a clause or sentence on its own (i.e., without any
other context). A word on its own has a propositional meaning, or truth value.
For example, the word «intelligence» is not in itself either true or false. But
if we embody it in a sentence such as -
Intelligence can
be measured
we can support or
deny the resulting proposition: we can assert that it is either true or false
and try to prove this.
Some sentences, however,
have little or no meaning unless embodied in a broader context. For example,
Nevertheless, he
did it again.
We have little idea of what
the significance of «Nevertheless» might be without the preceding context. Nor
do we know who «he» is, or what he «did again.» Such sentences are dependent
upon the broader context for their meaning.
3. CONTEXTUAL
MEANING
This is the meaning a
sentence takes on when it is embodied within a broader context. For example,
the proposition
Intelligence
cannot be measured by a test
is a generalization which
tells us nothing about the attitude of the person who wrote it or why he
bothered to write it. But within a broader context such as -
We must not use the results
of IQ tests to determine whether or not a child should be allowed to continue
his studies beyond high school. Intelligence cannot be measured by a test.
The
generalization takes on the special function of explaining or justifying the
preceding sentence.
4. PRAGMATIC MEANING
This is the meaning a
sentence takes on when it is part of an interaction between a writer and a
reader. It reflects the writer's feelings and attitudes as well as his
intention that the reader should understand what these are. It also includes an
intended effect - the effect that the writer intends his sentence to have upon
the reader.
Consider, for
example, the following:
Intelligence cannot be
measured by a test. And yet we constantly use the results of I.Q. tests to
determine whether or not a child should be allowed to continue his studies
beyond a certain level. How long are we going to go on perpetrating this
iniquitous practice?
The last sentence, although
phrased as a question, actually serves to emphasize the writer's outrage and to
make clear his intention to get his reader to cooperate with him in doing
something about the «iniquitous practice.»
Exercise:
For each of the following
sentences provide a set of different contexts with different pragmatic
meanings.
EXAMPLE: So of
course you believed him.
a. Everyone knew he was the
world's biggest liar. So of course you believed him. You obviously enjoy being
made a fool of!
b. After all, he never lied
before. So of course you believed him. I would have done the same under those
circumstances.
1.I never saw anything like it. 4.
I could do with some fresh air.
2.I wonder how he managed. 5.
Don't let me rush you.
3. Nothing ever came of it. 6. Don't worry about me.
I. WHAT THE WRITER MEANS
Writers often assume some
degree of prior knowledge of their subject on the part of their readers. Not
having to spell out every single detail (i.e., assuming that the reader already
knows certain details) makes it possible for the writer to get his message
across more quickly and effectively.
Consider the
following:
Text A:
The policeman
held up his hand and stopped the car.
We understand what the
writer of this sentence means because we know more than what the words mean.
* What does the
writer assume that we already know about traffic signals and how cars stop and
go (before we even begin to read his sentence)?
Text B:
Mary heard the ice-cream man
coming down the street. She remembered her birthday money and rushed into the
house.
* How do you suppose Mary
was able to hear the ice-cream man coming? (What detail didn't the writer
bother giving us because he assumed we already knew?)
* What connection does the
writer assume we will easily make between what Mary hears and what she does?
(Is there anything in the sentences that helps us make the connection? To what
extent do we have to depend upon what we already know about the situation from
our own experience?)
II. IMPLICATION (WHAT THE WRITER ASSUMES HIS READER
WILL INFER)
Writers often reveal what
they have to tell us indirectly. The information is implied, rather than
directly (explicitly) stated, so that we have to do some «work» before we can
understand the message. The «work» that we have to do is called «inferring»:
we «infer» the meaning that the writer «implies», or reveals indirectly
(implicitly). Another way of saying this is: We make inferences (by inferring)
about the writer's implications (whatever he implies).
Text
C:
Business had been slow since
the stock market crash. Nobody seemed to want anything really elegant anymore.
Suddenly the door opened and a well-dressed man entered the showroom. With a
sigh of relief, John put on his friendliest smile and walked confidently
towards him.
* What is John's occupation
and how do we know this?
* John assumes that the
well-dressed man has a particular purpose in entering the showroom. What does
he think the man has in mind, and how do we know this?
* What has John probably
inferred from the way the man is dressed that explains why he sighed with relief
and walked confidently toward him?
* What can we infer about
the sort of things that were on display in the showroom? On what basis can we
make this inference?
Text D:
(1) Jill came bouncing down
the stairs.
(1') Harry rushed off to get
the doctor.
Most readers would interpret
this in terms of Jill falling down the stairs and injuring herself, and as a
result of this Harry calling a doctor. Notice how different the interpretation
is when (1) is followed by a slightly different sentence:
(1)
Jill came bouncing down the stairs.
(1") Harry
rushed over to kiss her.
* Now what would
most readers infer about the meaning of the first sentence?
III. THE ROLE OF CONTEXT IN
CLARIFYING AMBIGUITIES
Often what the writer means
by a given statement depends to some extent upon the context within which the
statement (or written sentence) appears. Out of context, certain sentences
become highly ambiguous (open to various interpretations). Consider the
following:
Visiting professors can be boring.
The lamb was too hot to eat.
Out of cotext, these sentences are ambiguous and the message is
unclear.
* Place each of
the above sentences in different clarifying contexts (by adding other sentences
before or after them).
example: I don't think
you'll enjoy the lecture. Visiting professors can be boring.